Introduction
In the summer of 343 BC, Rome sent its ambassadors deep into the central Apennines to visit the mountain fastnesses of the Samnites. There they made clear that they expected the Samnites to lift their siege of Capua and remove their army from Campania, now surrendered voluntarily by its inhabitants into Roman hegemony. The ambassadors were haughtily rebuffed as the tradition goes (Livy 7.31) and presently returned to Rome, cassus belli firmly in hand. Soon, the standards of Rome’s legions could be seen issuing from the passes of the Monti Aurunci, the range separating Latium with Campania, wafting in the dusty clouds thrown up by long columns of veteran Roman soldiers. An epic struggle of seventy years was now about to commence between the two dominant and rising powers of the Italian peninsula. The Roman state that the Samnite tribes faced off against that year was a classic city-state on the Hellenic model, forged on the anvil of constant war from the cities’ civic birth in the late 7th century BC. Almost three centuries on from those beginnings Rome had evolved into a well-organized, confident and growing republic, blessed by nature and geography with a prime location at the heart of good quality agricultural lands and astride several important trade routes. This favourable location and its abundance furnished the city with a large and ever-increasing population, allowing the Romans to field a powerful land army, honed by perpetual yearly campaigning into a formation of the highest fighting quality.
The end of the 5th century BC was an important watershed in the history of the Roman state, as crises of both internal and external nature forced upon the Romans a significant change of direction from what had hitherto prevailed. Firstly, the cities’ large and expanding population ran into distress as the capacity of its lands to allow such a populace to thrive and to produce the necessary subsistence began to wane, leading to outbreaks of famine and also to political crises over its distribution among Romans. Externally, a important turning point for Rome was the Gallic sack of 390 BC, whose psychological effect on the Roman consciousness should not be under-estimated. Coming off significant successes, including the conquest of Etruscan Veii and the wearing down of the Sabellian tribes south of the city, Rome in one disastrous moment was crushed, shorn of its inherent pride, and left to pick up the pieces. The swift passing of this catastrophe did not permanently destroy Roman power, but no doubt it provoked some serious thought about how such events could be further avoided. The twin needs then, for land and security, produced a renewed and intensified policy of aggression following 390 BC. The foedus Cassinum, Rome’s alliance with its Latin brethren, was voided in favour of a policy of hegemony. Legions were enrolled, outfitted and sent off in all directions, year after year, until each of Rome’s several local adversaries were worn down and forced into capitulation, while with each success the security of the state, the Romans ultimate consideration, was met by the seizure of lands, the payment of indemnities, the acquisition of plunder and the establishment of new colonies. A virtuous cycle of conquest and increased power was thus hit upon. By the mid- 4th century BC, Rome thus had become mistress of all Latium and southern Etruria. Many years of hard campaigning to consolidate these victories was to follow, but the groundwork had been laid.